Learner’s perception of task difficulties in technology-mediated task-based language teaching

The perception of learners can be used for evaluating task-based language teaching development. However, during the technology-mediated task-based language teaching (TBLT), learners faced a few difficulties. Thus, this study aimed to investigate learners’ perceptions of task difficulties in technology-mediated (TBLT). To collect data, the study used a quantitative design with an open-ended questionnaire, and, involved two hundred learners as participants who came from different departments at the university. The results strongly confirmed that incorporating technology into TBLT leads learners to face some difficulties in (1) understanding the meaning of the task, (2) practical instruction in doing tasks, (3) applying new technology to explore profound tasks further, (4) lack of direct lecturer feedback on student tasks, (5) performance assessment, (6) addressing learners’ needs, (7) goal orientation, (8) digital literacy, building knowledge, intellectual, and behavior, and (9) school and curriculum rules. Furthermore, the study preferred some strategies to solve learners' difficulties in TBLT, such as managing teaching materials to become easier and more interesting, referring technology integration to learners’ ability, implementing bring your own device (BYOD), improving classroom assessment, teachers broadening technology-mediated, task-based learning internships, and facilitating learners with compatible technology tools and stable internet connection.


Introduction
In the last five years, using technology in teaching-learning activity has been exceptionally pivotal in assessing English language learners' achievement. Learners' achievement can easily be measured by incorporating technology into the task augmented syllabus (Sahin & Yilmaz, 2020). Myriad investigators wielded technologymediated tasks in teaching English as a foreign language (EFL) context (Nauman,

Literature review 2.1. Task-based language teaching (TBLT)
According to Chong (2018) and Chong and Reinders (2020), TBLT or taskbased instruction (TBI) is a development approach of communicative language teaching (CLT) since it emphasizes the use of native language to do the potential task by target language (TL). In this case, authentic assessment requires real task learners. Indeed, this model puts forward fluency compared with accuracy. Other foregone scholars confirmed that TBLT fine weather is used to enhance learners' TL communication (Kessler, 2018;Piątkowska, 2015;Ziegler & Phung, 2019;Zheng & Warschauer, 2017) Some scholars like Chou (2017) and Moore (2018) have investigated whether task-based language teaching is considered a good way to help learners increase their listening ability. Their investigation also emphasized that there was a comparison between the experimental and control groups in listening strategy, namely that metacognitive awareness states that unit analysis is effective for integrating theory, practice, and contextualization in TBLT. Comparatively, Ellis (2018) classified TBLT into some characteristics such as (1) natural use of language, (2) type of task, (3) linguistic focus, (4) focus on form, (5) student-centred, and (6) traditional rebuttal approach (confirming as a new approach). Another perspective on task-based learning confirmed that social needs, interactive, and affective elements can be used in TBLT.
Implementing TBLT can increase learners' motivation as highlighted by Chua and Lin (2020). In this case, for developing productive skills and speaking, TBLT was more effective if integrated into online interaction. It is critical to remember that in TBLT, teachers' beliefs, classroom practices, and contextual factors must all be taken into account. They also stated that technology-mediated in TBLT can be compared as an alternative approach to the traditional method. Another key point is that TBLT draws attention from some researchers to implement it into English for specific purposes (ESP), (Alibakhshi & Labbafi, 2021;Asmali, 2018;Bayram & Canaran, 2020;Malicka, Gilabert-Guerrero, & Norris, 2019;Rahmati & Izadpanah, 2021;Xie, 2021). All the scholars mentioned above agreed that task-based language teaching could help learners gain receptive and productive skills. All in all, TBLT is a deliberate approach to building communication and reflecting leaner' analysis.

Technology-mediated task-based language
Implementing the TBLT approach in the 21st century is considered less relevant and less attractive to students, along with the development of super-sophisticated technology. Besides, students in the current millennial era have been very familiar with gadgets, so that they are more motivated if TBLT is incorporated with technology. González-Lloret, (2017) emphasized that technology should be integrated into the syllabus and curriculum needs analysis. Baralt and Mercillo-Gomez (2017) also stated that community in language teaching can be built and socialized through online technology-mediated TBLT. Indeed, incorporating technology into TBLT can potentially provide opportunities for developing learners' soft skills and peer training (Iveson, 2019). He added that technology in TBLT would be ideal for combining online and blended language learning. Furthermore, Iveson (2019) summed up that the incorporation of technology in TBLT helps learners enhance their digital literacy. Besides, learners have been shown to be highly motivated when TBLT is combined with mobile technology as Butarbutar, Uspayanti, Bawawa, and Leba (2020) had been investigated. Shu (2020) on the other hand, believed that combining computer multimedia technology with language teaching can improve learners' classroom translating ability and raise learners' awareness of language.
Similarly, González-Lloret, (2017) then Smith and González-Lloret (2020) investigated technology-mediated in TBLT with specific technology. They also investigated learner data using a mobile application and social media, so that investigation contributed to language learning promotion. Another evidence that promotes the merits of technology-mediated came from Chong (2018), who confirmed that web-based language learning can facilitate learners' enhancement of interaction and collaboration in developing their speaking. Incorporating technology into task-based language teaching contributed to a better understanding of the student while doing tasks, both blended and online learning. An empirical study was done by Nauman et al., (2020) who conducted a treatment to see students' writing achievement. They also facilitated technology-mediated communication into three parts: 1) online chatting (private and group chat), 2) writing editing (social media and wikis), and 3) content writing (website and blogging). Consequently, there was a significant comparison between the control class (using the conventional method) and the experimental class (using technology-mediated TBLT) in writing achievement regarding the IELTS-9 band scale.
In contrast, Carvalho, Delgado, and Casado (2020) highlighted research findings in Portuguese as a Non-Native Language that does not involve technology in TBLT as an appropriate teaching strategy. They added that to implement better and effective teaching, language teachers do not use technology. On the contrary, Gunuç and Babacan (2018), who discovered that incorporating software and hardware technologies into TBLT improves learning. Technology in TBLT has proved to facilitate learners' materials. Hereafter, learners can access ubiquitous low-cost materials and repeated course materials at a different timetable.

The merits of technology-mediated TBLT
It is clearly proven that integrating technology into TBLT has some merits in terms of helping teachers to assess learners' achievement. It has been clearly demonstrated that incorporating technology into TBLT has some benefits, such as assisting teachers in assessing learners' achievement context (Laurillard, Kenned, Charlton, Wild, & Dimakopoulos 2018;Nauman et al., 2020;Sawang, 2017;Shen, Ho, Ly, & Kuo, 2019;Yeou, 2016). Aside from that, the benefits include improving learners' digital literacy, knowledge, intellectual capacity, and behavior (Khezrlou, 2021;González-Lloret, 2017;Schrader & Kalyuga, 2020), as well as providing opportunities for learners to develop soft skills and peer training. Iveson (2019) also assisted learners to improve interaction and collaboration while developing their speaking skills through web-based learning. Similarly, Cong-Lem (2018) stated that making materials more accessible so that students can use them.

Research design
This study used a quantitative research design. In investigating the real-world learners' difficulties in implementing technology-mediated TBLT, the study involved two hundred learners as participants who came from different departments at the university. Purposive sampling was used to select the students from the first academic year of college who took an English course.

Table 1
Demography of participants.

Technique of Collecting Data
This study used an open-ended questionnaire as a research instrument. The instrument consisted of eight items adopted from Hadi (2013). For this reason, participants could write all their perceptions in the blank space. It aimed to help the researcher gather the information needed deeply. However, before being distributed to all participants, it was examined through a validity test (r-count = 0.05). Afterward, all valid questionnaire items were piloted for twenty participants to examine their validity, and then the valid items were distributed to all participants.

Technique of data analysis
All valid questionnaire items were tabulated using 5-point Likert Scales: 1 "Strongly Disagree," 2 "Disagree," 3 "Average," 4 "Agree," and 5 "Strongly Agree" In the case of statistical data, the SPSS application 23 version was used. Pearson Product Moment correlation was conducted for a validity test with the following decisions: (1) If the value of r count > r table, then the questionnaire item is valid. (2) If the value of r count < r table, then the questionnaire item is invalid. Whereas, the reliability test is measured by Cronbach Alpha. If Cronbach Alpha > 0.6, then the questionnaire items used are reliable. For massive measurement, reliability statistics are categorized into five qualifications by Guilford (1956, p.145 as cited in Amaliyah & Riyan, 2020) is shown in Table 2. Negative -0.20 Very Low

Findings and discussion
The questionnaire result for Research Question 1 shows that r counts as 0.790 > r table as 0.0138. Therefore, the correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). The statistical learners' perception is obviously formulated in Table 3. In comparison to the reliability test, the measurement was carried out by paying attention to a Cronbach Alpha > 0.6, indicating that the questionnaire items used were reliable. It is clearly formulated in Table 4. The learners' perception is classified as high because Cronbach Alpha (α = .0790) > reliability coefficient 0.6. Regarding RQ 1, almost all participants agreed that they faced difficulties with technology-mediated in TBLT. They argued that the difficulties are categorized as high-level. Furthermore, empirical open-ended questionnaires supported their claims, such as (1) understanding the meaning of the task, (2) practicality of instruction in doing tasks, (3) applying new technology to explore profound tasks further, (4) lack of direct lecturer feedback on student task, (5) performance assessment, and (6) addressing learner's needs (requires linguistics & nonlinguistics element). The study investigated learners' perceptions of difficulties in implementing technology-mediated task-based language learning (TBLT). The results showed learners agreed that they suffered from practical instruction in doing tasks. When the lecturer gave assignment-based lectures, it was mediated by technology, such as creative writing courses. Lecturers provided instructions on doing assignments and the limitations of their submission, but some found difficulty in interpreting the instructions given. The study is the evident from the project partly collected outside of the course's competency standards' expectations or achievement.
Iveson (2019) argued that incorporating technology into TBLT can potentially provide opportunities for developing learners' soft skills and peer training. However, he emphasized that it would be more useful to use the blended learning model. Furthermore, he found that blended learning was closely linked to outcomes and students' profiles (classroom attendance, background, and age). Regarding learners' needs (linguistics and non-linguistic element), Smith and González-Lloret (2020) implemented technology-mediated in TBLT with unique technology into particular tasks by exploring learner data using a mobile application and social media. Thus, their investigation contributed to language learning promotion. Besides, their study supported learners' non-linguistic speaking by using interactive internet video.
Statistically, this study noted that learners faced problems in understanding the goal orientation of course lessons. Learners should know goal orientation through cognitive ability, acquire new skills, mastery conditions, and learner's competency. Besides, external and internal learners' motivation would encourage whether they comprehend course goal orientation in the starting classroom activities (Chua & Lin, 2020). Because goal orientation is linked to learning outcomes and performance evaluation, The study also investigated one factor why learners suffered from technologymediated TBLT while applying new technology to explore profound tasks in more detail. It was found that the learners' demography profile describes a lack of frequent use of technology, and learners' full-time workers as full-time learners. Similarly, Carvalho et al. (2020) argued that an appropriate teaching strategy in Portuguese as a non-native language did not involve technology in TBLT. On the contrary, the high level of frequency involving technology in the learning process is believed to reduce student difficulties in applying new technology (Chong, 2018;Gunuç & Babacan, 2018;Smith & González-Lloret, 2020).
Along with the second research question (RQ 2), the study offered six preferred strategies to solve learners' difficulties in technology-mediated TBLT. Technology has been widely integrated into foreign language teaching contexts over the last few decades. A substantial amount of research has been carried out to investigate and demonstrate the effectiveness of technology integration on student learning in improving language skills such as grammar and vocabulary, as well as four language skills increasing cultural sense belonging, motivation development and auto-learning, and establishing a student-centred environment as investigated by Kurt (2021). Those strategies are:

Managing teaching materials becomes easier and more interesting
The use of information technology in learning, among others, is characterized by the interaction between teachers and students via internet technology, the presence of pre-programmed teaching materials, the teacher acting as a facilitator, and the flexibility in the learning process both in terms of time and place. To understand and create the interesting course material, two perceptions are required: students' perception and the teachers' perception. The students' perception shows that if learning materials are integrated with technology, the teachers' perception clarifies that it becomes easier when using traditional methods or face-to-face in the classroom. For both those perceptions, blended learning is the best strategy for learners in the 21st century (Li & Renandya, 2012).
In terms of TBLT integrated technology, teachers can negotiate and integrate socio-cultural environments into course syllabuses. It has become a beneficial method of providing interesting material for students. For this reason, Ma (2017) reinforced that learning materials are easier and more interesting by integrating technology-mediated and combining local content and prior knowledge. He also added that teaching language was more interesting for learners while the teacher allows learners to use bilinguals in the classroom activities. In contrast, Butarbutar, Manuhutu, and Palangngan (2019) promoted a puzzle-based local culture as a beneficial and useful medium used to attract students interested in learning English, young learners in particular. However, their investigation did not integrate puzzle-based local culture with technology. Overall, various approaches begin from local, traditional, contemporary to global, are considerably used to attract learners interested in learning, and the most crucial thing is the teacher's creativity.

Integrating technology referring to learners' ability
Teachers must pay attention to the level, the interest, and context in order to create efficient and effective learning in accordance with what teachers and schools expect. Recognizing each learner's level of ability is one of the competencies required of a teacher as an educator. Thus, the teacher can plan, implement, and assess student learning outcomes based on the technology applied. It is called technology pedagogical knowledge content (TPCK) (Nayar, & Akmar, 2020). The concept of the TPACK learning approach involves seven knowledge domains.
First, the domain of material knowledge is content knowledge (CK) (Kurt, 2021). This domain is the mastery that teachers must have regarding the field of study or learning material being taught. An English teacher must understand the learning materials in English. Second, the domain of pedagogical knowledge (PK) (Kurt, 2021). It is the basic knowledge of the teacher regarding the learning process and strategy. In simple terms, learning strategies can be interpreted as teachers' efforts to implement and manage various learning methods to achieve the expected goals. Thirdly, Kurt (2021) added the domain of technological knowledge (TK). This domain is related to teachers' experience of using digital technology, both hardware and software. Technological knowledge is not just a matter of being able to operate a computer. Knowledge of the latest software or applications is also essential, such as web meeting applications and video editor software. Fourth, the domain of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). PCK is a combination of knowledge about studying or learning materials with learning processes and strategies.
Certain learning materials will be delivered well if the teacher applies specific learning strategies. In this case, one learning strategy is not necessarily suitable for all learning materials. Fifth, the domain of technological content knowledge (TCK). This domain is related to teachers' knowledge of digital technology and understanding of subject areas or learning materials (Cho, Hwang, & Jang, 2021;Jansen et al., 2021;Özgür, 2020).
The speaking material in learning English will attract students' interest more if displayed through videos and accompanied by voices from native speakers. It will also motivate students, even more, when they are allowed to have an interactive dialogue with native speakers. These activities will occur if the teacher can integrate technology into language learning based on each student's level and interests. Therefore, professional teachers should facilitate it.
Sixth, the domain of knowledge about technology and pedagogy (technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK). This domain is related to knowledge of digital technology and understanding of learning processes and strategies. For the online learning evaluation process, for example, the teacher cannot carry out the assessment directly. Using Google Forms will help teachers provide online reviews to students.
Seventh, the domain of knowledge about technology, pedagogy, and material (technological, pedagogical, content knowledge (TPCK). This domain is expected to happen, where teachers have comprehensive knowledge of digital technology, knowledge of learning processes and strategies, and understanding of subject areas or learning materials. These knowledge packages intersect with each other and produce slices into new knowledge packages that teachers need to develop in learning in the 21st century. The right TPACK combination will help teachers teach certain materials well (Mishrah & Kohler, 2006).

Implementing bring your own device (BYOD)
The use of technology in language teaching is closely related to the possession of devices. The success of technology-mediated learning depends on its completeness. It can be accessed everywhere and anytime. Some researchers have investigated the effect of BYOD on both companies and academics (Barlette, Jaouen, & Baillette, 2021;Disterer & Kleiner, 2013). Their investigation stated the term or slogan BYOD gives a better contribution to their institution due to reduced operational costs. Similarly, schools and colleges are more economical in providing network internet connections while learners and employees use their own personal devices such as laptops, mobile speakers, speakers, etc. For example, an English lecturer will be able to deliver the materials more effectively if he/she brings her own apparatus. BYOD affects personal characteristics, performance, self-confidence, flexibility, and lifestyle. Furthermore, learners have more extensive opportunities to apply self-learning referring to their own learning style in various locations. Furthermore, BYOD allows students to encourage their own potential, creativity, and encouragement by using their own devices. Some students feel more comfortable avoiding pressure to do the task in language learning. Learners frequently use their own technology devices while attempting to complete learning activities, so the term "BYOD" refers to a supported technology-mediated task (TBLT).

Improving classroom assessment
For a long time, assessment of language teaching has focused on learners' achievement. While integrating into technology, it becomes a mismatch. Classroom management, social factors, learners' language ability, peer feedback, creativity, involvement, behavior are considered assessments. Even the assessment standards of the 2013 curriculum in Indonesia have shifted to competency-based assessment. Previously, tests were used to measure knowledge competencies based solely on results, but authentic assessments have recently been used to measure all competencies in attitudes, skills, and knowledge, based on processes and results. Douglas and Hegelheimer (2007) recommended technology assessment language teaching such as authoring computer-based, feedback, developing, scoring, and validating. Their investigation suggested computer-based assessment to construct interesting, automatic scoring, self-assessment tests, and more benefits to the test takers. In addition, they added that involving technology in teaching language assessment like computers gave substantive options and more accurate results than conventional assessment. It is important to consider that technology-mediated task-based language teaching should be intertwined with appropriate assessment by considering three essential substantives such as effectiveness, innovation, and equivalency.

A teacher broadens the scope of a technology-mediated task-based learning internship
The result of the open-ended questionnaire shows that teachers also require long-term training in order to integrate technology into language teaching. González (2014) stated that need analysis from a teachers' perspective implied that developing curriculum required providing and facilitating expanded training for teachers. Meanwhile, Ruggiero and Boehm (2017) concluded that using technology in teaching language to avoid some problems means that the teacher offered running-well utility. To do this, teachers are crucially involved in some kinds of internships, such as virtual internships. Training flexibility and functional impact are somewhat inexpensive and have a functional impact on constructing knowledge. Further, teachers' belief and selfefficacy increase in using appropriate technology, which supports successful technology-mediated TBLT elaborated (Fajrinur, 2019).
The competence to integrate technology development into teaching as professional development identified by the motivation to implement new technologies must be considered (Tømte, Enochsson, Buskqvist, & Krstein, 2015). Their study clarified that in-preservice training facilitated teachers using technology effectively, which is called teachers' digital competence. In this case, teachers need focus group discussions and internships. Also, teachers have to be proficient in using technology for solving learners' problems at TBLT. Additionally, to help learners develop their technological pedagogical knowledge, TBLT must synchronize with the teacher's digital competence.

Facilitating learners with compatible technology tools and a stable internet connection
Generally, researchers agree that learner achievement unquestionably benefits from compatible tools (Bervell & Arkorful, 2020;Lawrence & Tar, 2018). Similarly, the outcome of students' in technology-mediated TBLT absolutely affected compatible technology tools and stable internet connection. Many empirical studies have been conducted, including those that clarified that incompatible tools and unstable internet connections were crucial challenges in teaching language technology integration. One factor of need analysis (NA) for better curriculum development is facilitating learners with compatible tools and stable internet connections. In addition, the results showed that the learners' difficulty in technology-mediated learning was caused by incompatible devices. In this case, learners struggled due to the limitation of technology-supported devices to do task-based content. Task-based content and compatible devices cannot be separated in the teaching language context. Comparatively, in another perspective, it is stated that rapid technology development supports students' self-regulation (Shih, 2010). Furthermore, facilitating adequate apparatus for the learner simultaneously increased the learners' intrinsic motivation to achieve a learning goal setting. In addition, they possess their own compatible technology that enlarges learners' opportunities to be more aware of outcome performance. In line with the students' profile overview, the level frequency of having the technology-mediated learning process was supported by technology facilities. As explored, having technology and computer access also encourages learners' independence, as confirmed by a female teacher's perspective.

Conclusion
The study sums up that learners' difficulties during technology-mediated TBLT are caused by some factors. First, there is reluctance among teachers to incorporate technology. Learners found difficulties while trying to understand the meaning and practical instruction of the task by both self-learning and peer teaching. Second, the learners' enthusiasm for applying new features of technology. Some students who are over 27 years old with full-time status, both as workers and learners, are unable to adopt new learning technology tools. Third, they were unsupportive learning facilities. The teaching and learning process unsupported with complete facilities is the cause of students having difficulty. Fourth, the weakness of the regulation system. Policymakers or curriculum designers have a crucial role and must quickly respond to technological learning development in particular. However, the government's lack of tenacity in imposing sanctions on schools and teachers who have not implemented technology will create a quandary in which both students and teachers will face difficulties in the learning process and achievement. Fifth, there is a lack of parental support for the learners' utilities. The incorporation of technology into TBLT has the advantage of facilitating self-learning repeated materials on a different time schedule, Gunuç and Babacan (2018). Nonetheless, it will be contrasted with minimal parental involvement to support learner needs. On the other hand, integrated technology in TBLT requires more attention and should be included as core knowledge when developing course syllabuses and curriculum materials for future Habiburrahim (2019).
It is important to remember that policymakers could offer a massive workshop or internship to teachers, educators, schools, and education practitioners about technology-mediated TBLT and incorporate it into the existing curriculum. In that case, they will have a difficult time meeting the required standard of competency. In addition, combining both online and blended learning has the potential to recognize studentcentred learning (CTL) as the implication of TBLT (Yamashita, He, & Ellis, 2018). It is important to note that policymakers, teachers, and learners work together to integrate technology-mediated learning into the language teaching syllabus and curriculum. Besides, parental support is needed for the success of technology-mediated task-based language teaching. Despite the fact that all of the factors influencing student difficulties in the study had been investigated, the small number of participants, questionnaire items, and their interpretation were cited as the study's limitations. Therefore, the perceptions of both teachers and parents are recommended for future study.