Translation techniques used in translating a smartphone user manual

As many smartphones are imported from overseas and the user manuals are written in English

facilitated by technology, and people are aware of technology requirement in their life. Smartphones coincidently have become one of the advances that help human communication and interaction. With many ranges of uses such as social media, meeting people trough video call, smartphone popularity has increased rapidly. According Soomro and Sarwar (2013, p. 216), smartphone was initially perceived as business-only tool because of the price and application, but today smartphone have many extended functions that make it very popular. As smartphone technology develops, people may need information about its new features, functions, facilities, etc. which users have yet known how to operate and use. Therefore, smartphone companies need to provide users with a user manual. Now that the smartphones are manufactured overseas with their user manuals written mostly in English, a translation is provided to inform the contents of the book to the customers. Among many kinds of smartphones, Samsung smartphone is the focus of this research. It is a very popular brand of smartphone that many people use in Indonesia. Therefore, the user manual of Samsung smartphone model GT-19500 had been the subject of this study. The user manual is written two languages, and it is translated from English into Indonesia. The user manual provides information and detail of a smartphone and how to use it. .
There have been many studies on the translation techniques used in translating texts from English into Indonesian, such as translation of magazine articles (Mustafa & Kholid, 2019), novels (Aziz, 2015), web pages (Kamil, 2014), and tourism news texts (Ariyaningsih & Santika, 2018). However, translation of a technology manual book is underresearched. Therefore, this study analyzed the translation techniques used in a smartphone user manual to find out the most frequently used translation techniques to translate this type of document from English into Indonesian. The results of the study are significant for translators to adjust their translation technique when they are working on documents involving technology device operation.

Literature review
In the translation process, according to Darwish (2003, p. 3), a constant decision needs to be made by a translator, and knowledge in linguistic and cultural aspect is used in order to make a clear information in the target language. Serova (2014, p. 48) believes that people get their understanding of language based on their environment such as "social scopes and culture". Translators will learn how to translate on their own, with exercise on translating a language, making "trial and error" of translating source text into target text, and acquiring knowledge from there (Robinson, 2003, pp. 90-91). They instill their knowledge and experience to finish the translation of the text (Remkhe & Nefedova, 2014, p. 237). Lederer (1994) then provided the steps on the process, i.e. reading and understanding, de-verbalization, and re-expression. Reading and understanding mean that translators are tested on their knowledge and skills to understand the meaning of source language (SL). De-verbalization is the process of sensing without relying on words before it comes to there-expression process when a translator completes the translation to the target language (TL) based on the sense.
In order to translate text correctly, some techniques are needed to apply. As a functional, discourse and contextual result of a translation process that is in proportion to original text (Bardaji, 2009, p. 169), translation techniques need to be acquired by translators to ease their job. Ordudari (2007, p. 2) has described the challenges with the issues of forms, meaning, styles, proverbs, idiom, etc. in translating a text into a target language. Molina and Albir (2002, p. 499), therefore, suggest that translation technique is proposed to help the process of translating. Guerra (2012, p. 5) argues that the translators should be aware of cultural differences between languages and should use various methods or techniques to close the gap.

Translation techniques
There are some translation techniques that a translator can usually employ. Different experts propose different techniques of translation. In this study, we only focus on some techniques proposed by Molina and Albir (2002) that the translator of our object of study has used in translating the user manual.

Literal translation
Literal translation also known as word for word translation, and it is, according to Walinski (2015, p. 60) the act of transferring source language and its grammatical rule directly into target language. According to Molina and Albir (2002, p. 510), literal translation is translating word to word from source language into target language. Fang and Lu (2012, p. 743) say that the work of literal translation always pin-points to its narrow form, like word to word through group to group, collocation to collation, clause to clause, and sentence to sentence. They also add that a translator cannot change the original message of what the author conveys in the text, so the translator must literally translate it even if it has badly written text. However, Blake (2003, p. 22) suggests that lacking correspondence of words in the cultural aspect may result in translating the text literally, and it can cause the meaning or context to be lost.

Borrowing
Borrowing is transferring the pure word or expression straight from the source language (Guerra, 2012, p. 7). According to Hoffer (2002, p. 2) borrowing can occur due to many factors, such as close contact of nations, the advent of media that introduce another type of language, cultural contact in linguistic and communicative elements and market spread of foreign products from another nation. Borrowing is used to incorporate new element into the speakers" native language which causes transfer and copying process of foreign word (Haspelmath, 2009, p. 36).

Calque
Calque imitates the source language and reproduces the meaning to make use of its linguistic elements (Larizgoitia, 2010, p. 15). Dizier and Garnier (2009, p. 20) say that calque covers three major situations: lexical calque, position calque, and temporal calque. Lexical calque, according to Dizier and Garnier (2009, p. 20), occurs when specific word from source language is used as preposition to target language object. Larizgoitia (2010, p. 22) adds that in the lexical calque the process involves analyzing the source word and later replaces it. Furthermore, position calque is calque that occur if word or construction of word is misplaced (Dizier & Garnier, 2009, p. 20). Walinski (2015, p. 59) says that this calque may create a new design of sentence. Finally, temporal calque, Dizier and Garnier (2009, p. 20) say, is calque technique that occur temporarily because of its grammatical causes. They add that the affected grammatical clause is connected to the sentence clause or verbs, such as the future tense in English is changed into present tense in the target language.

Transposition
Transposition is replacing one word with another without changing the meaning of the message. Molina and Albir (2002, p. 511) say that transposition is the act of replacing and changing a structure rule of the sentence. Mahadi and Moindjie (2006, p. 71) add it is categorized as transposition when a translator uses different expression of a word or construction of word without changing the message of the source text. According to Munday (2009, p. 237) transposition assumes different expressions of target language grammar that have no change in meaning from the source language.

Modulation
Modulation is the change of point of view in translation. Molina and Albir (2002, p. 510) suggest that modulation is presenting different point of views or focuses in target language that have relation with source language. Different to transposition, modulation forms a change in "cognitive rank", and the change in perspective can be considered obligatory or optional (Munday, 2009, p. 209). Modulation can also mean of translating a word or a sentence that is the opposite of source language to give a different point of view.

Equivalence
Equivalence means describing the same situation by different stylistic or structural means. It is producing an equivalent of text in the target language into source language by using different style (Walinski, 2015). Equivalent is supposed to show that both source language and target language have some kind of similarities (Panou, 2013, p. 2). Yinhua (2011, p. 169) adds that equivalence achieved in different degrees and linguistic levels possibly diminishes the loss of meaning and reflects different cultures. Mahadi and Moindjie (2006, p. 73) say that what the target language speaker perceives in their culture greatly affects the equivalence.

Adaptation
Adaptation is replacing the cultural word from the source language into the equivalent word of target language. Guerra (2012, p. 7) says that adaptation is an alteration of cultural element in source language to another term that has a similar effect in target language. The basic goal of adaptation is to introduce the adapted text"s cultural elements such as weigh, measures, or musical notation (Guerra, 2012, p. 7). According to Amorim (2003, p. 195), adaptation makes the source text somewhat translatable by creating new wordplays and equal meaning effects.

Generalization
Generalization is replacing a text into something general and what people mostly know. This means that some translations are not always translated specifically. Molina and Albir (2002, p. 510) say that generalization is when the neutral word or general word that people mostly know is used instead. According to Klaudy (2001, p. 8), when reading generalization word, a reader usually does not notice translation loss in it since the word is already translated to wider general term in the target language. If it causes misunderstanding, then a translator must make an effort to change it to a more specific word.

Omission
Omission means not using the words that have no place in the target language. According to Sharma (2015, p. 6), omission means concealing the word that does not have equivalence or they are not needed in the target language. Dickins, Hervey, and Higgins (2002, p. 23) say that omission occurs when the word does not provide any important information in the target language and adding it would sometimes make it more difficult to understand because of different structures in the target language. Dickins et al. (2002, p. 23) also add that culture differences may provide a case where omission technique is used.

Translation problems
Translating a text is not an easy job for translators. Problems in translation sometimes hinder the work of translation. According to Ghazala (1995, p. 18), these problems are either due to phonological rules, lexical differences, grammar or style. In order to overcome translation problems, translators usually exploit their knowledge in life experience, or find the equivalence of said words that can help them to meet their goal in translating the source language (Schwarz, Stiegelbauer, & Husar, 2016, p. 52). According to Rahmatillah (2016, p. 17) problems in translation are usually connected with each other. Each of the word in a translation text may cause an error which results into error in translation, the solution for it is also connected to the problem caused by the translated word.
Problems in translation include linguistic and non-linguistics aspects. According to Albakry (2005, pp. 162-164) linguistic issues in translation problem are narrative style, semantic, syntax and punctuation, and grammatical gender. Sadiq (2008, p. 2) says that the lexical problem a translator will face may be related to changing a source text into target language that has no direct counterparts, but this can be solved by changing the source text into something of equivalent with the target text. Syntactic errors happen when the translator misplaces the word order he/she is going to translate. Sadiq (2008, p. 11) also adds that the other problem for translation is the syntactic problem, which is the word order and tense, where each of the languages has unique word order that differentiates one from another. Many misspelling will reduce the credibility of the translation. Punctuation mistakes are also the same case with misspellings.
In the nonlinguistic aspects, Yan and Naikang (2011, p. 59) say that translation error in cultural aspect is very important for translators to realize, and they should avoid it by understanding the target text background and do some additions to help the target readers understand. To emphasis, Putranti (2015 p. 168) adds that cultural differences between source text and target text may result in loss and gain of meanings.

Method
This study falls under the field of qualitative research in the form of descriptive study. The data for this research were qualitative data, taken from Samsung GT-19500 smartphone user manual.

Source of data
The data for this study were collected from the Samsung GT-19500 smartphone user manual. The manual was translated from English into Indonesian by the Samsung Electronics company. Both versions of the manual consist of 147 pages, divided into several sections, including getting started section and troubleshooting sections. The manual in the original English version was printed in 2013 and translated into Indonesian in 2015. The manual is accessible for public in the Samsung website download section (https://www.samsung.com/id/support/model/GT-I9500ZKAXSE/#downloads)

Data collection procedure
The data were collected by comparing English and Indonesian versions of the user manual. Each sentence, phrase, and word were read to match with the type of translation used to translate from SL to TL. The translation techniques proposed by Molina and Albir (2002) as presented in the literature review section above were used as the checklist to categorize the data in this study.

Data analysis
Document analysis method was used, and thus the data were analyzed using a document content analysis. The data were collected from words, phrases, and sentences in the user manual. The accuracy of translation techniques used was confirmed to be accepted as token, then the underlined tokens were analyzed. The analysis utilized some processes of data condensation, data display, and drawing conclusion and verification. Following these steps, the data were recorded into tables along with the correspondent translation techniques. The categorized data were displayed in a table to identify and calculate the token accurately. Afterwards, the number of tokens in each category was calculated for frequency. Finally, before the conclusion was drawn and verified, the findings were elaborated and discussed in detail.

Findings
The objective of this research was to find out the translation techniques used in Samsung GT-19500 user manual which was translated into Indonesian as the target language. The data were classified based on the translation techniques proposed by Molina and Albir (2002). Based on the results of data analysis, nine translation techniques were found in the user manual, as presented in Table 1.  Table 1 shows that many translation techniques were used in translating a technology user manual from English into Indonesian. However, only three techniques were used frequently, totaling 78 percent of all techniques found. The rests were used less than 10 percent. All techniques are presented in the following.

Borrowing
Borrowing technique is the most used translation technique in this study because translating electronic terms from source language into target language requires accuracy. Many electronic terms in English do not have any accurate equivalence in Indonesian. The translator mainly used this technique to transfer the term as it is because its equivalent is not available in the target language. For example: SL: Do not remove the memory card while the device is transferring or accessing information (p. 16) TL: Jangan melepaskan kartu memori saat perangkat mentransfer atau mengakses informasi (p. 16) In the text above, the source language is translated into target language using borrowing translation technique. The word transfer is translated directly into transfer. The word is translated without any change in spelling from the source language into the target language. The borrowing technique occurred on verb -ing in the English structure which is men+ verb in Indonesian structure.
The word transfer can be translated directly into Indonesian. Transfer means the act of moving something from one place to another place. Translator can translate it into memindahkan but he/she decided to keep the original word. The word transfer is associated with a smartphone because it is a common feature in a smartphone. Therefore, the translator did not use its equivalence in Indonesian. Another extracted example of borrowing is provided in the following.
(p. 15) In the example above, the word maximum is translated into maksimum. The word was translated without any change in pronunciation and meaning from source language into target language. However, the spelling is adjusted to Indonesian spelling system.

Literal translation
Literal translation is directly translating the source language element into target language element, and it is also known as word for word translation. The translator mainly uses this technique because translator wants to keep each meaning of the words intact. This translation technique is preferred due to its simplicity. In this example, the source text is not a sentence, so the translator translated the words directly without considering language structural element. Literal translation technique was also found in a dependent statement as in the following example.
(p.14) In the source text above, the translator transferred the text directly into target language and adjusted the translation to the structural element in both languages. In English the basic structure of a sentence is subject + verb + object + identifier, which is also similar to that in Indonesian for a dependent informative sentence. Another example of literal translation technique can be found in a phrase, as in the following. SL: Swapping images. (p. 55) TL: Menukar gambar. (p. 55) The phrase swapping images and menukar gambar, in the example above, was translated word by word, where the phrase consists only a verb and its object.

Calque
Calque translation technique is taking borrowed expression or word and imitates the structure of the language. Calque becomes the second most used translation technique in this technology user manual. The translator used this technique because it is almost similar to borrowing, but there is a change in target language structure. . For example: SL: A computer can be also used to charge the device by connecting them via the USB cable. (p. 13) TL: Komputer juga dapat digunakan untuk mengisi daya perangkat dengan menghubungkannya melalui kabel USB. (p.13) In the example above, USB cable was translated literally into kabel USB, but the word order has been changed to meet the word order rule in Indonesian, with some adjustment in spelling. This translation technique was found in prohibition statement, as in the following example. SL: You cannot use widgets on the locked screen in easy mode. (p. 38) TL: Anda tidak dapat menggunakan widget pada layar dikunci dalam mode mudah. (p. 38) In the text above, the translated version of mode mudah is the imitation of the expression in the source language, easy mode. The translator inverted the word order of the expression to match the structure of target language. Calque translation technique was also used in translating verb phrases.

Transposition
Transposition is to change the word or structure rules of the sentence without affecting the message. Translators use this technique to make some changes in grammatical rule of target language that cannot be translated from source language. Transposition technique is not completely relevant for a technical document, but translator used this technique to adjust the style in the target language to avoid awkwardness in translating some sentences. For example: SL: This may cause connectivity problems or drain the battery. (p. 18) TL: Tindakan ini dapat mengganggu konektivitas atau menguras daya baterai.
(p. 18) In the text above, the word problems (literarily means masalah in Indonesian), which is a noun, was translated into mengganggu, a verb in Indonesian. The translator"s decision to transpose the noun into verbs makes the sentence sound more natural and easier to understand.

Equivalence
Equivalence is a translation technique that produces an equivalent text in the target language that has same similarities with the source language. The equivalence technique in this user manual was used to avoid misunderstanding in the part of target language readers. The translator tried to establish equivalence between both languages to help reader understand the meaning of the words they do not know. For example: SL: So you must unplug the charger from the electric socket when not in use to avoid wasting power. (p. 14) TL: Jadi anda harus mencabut pengisi daya dari steker ketika tidak digunakan agar tidak boros listrik. (p. 14) In this example, the focus of the sentence is the phrase electric socket which was translated into steker. The phrase electric socket can be translated directly into colokan listrik, but the translator selected steker, which also means colokan listrik, and it is commonly used in daily communication. Another example is given below. In the text above, the phrase applications screen is translated into daftar aplikasi in the target language using equivalence technique. Screen directly translates into layar, but in this case the translator used daftar "list" because the word layar aplikasi does not make sense to Indonesian readers. Layar aplikasi is understood as the screen of the active application. Daftar aplikasi, which is literary means "application list", can be interpreted as the list of application which is equivalent with applications screen.

Adaptation
Adaptation is a translation technique that replaces the cultural element of a source language into an equivalent words or phrases in the target language. In this research, the translator used this technique to transfer cultural words of the electronic product which was difficult to understand into a casual text in the target language. This technique was not very productive because the adaptation word needs to be of equivalence to target language, and adaptation technique is not necessary if there is no equivalence. For example: SL: To move an icon, thumbnail, or preview to a new location, tap and hold it and drag it to the target position. (p. 21) TL: Untuk memindahkan ikon, gambar kecil, atau pratinjau ke lokasi baru, ketuk dan tahan lalu seret ke posisi tujuan. (p. 21) The word thumbnail is translated into gambar kecil in the target language using adaptation technique. Thumbnail is the culture element in a smartphone. The word thumbnail directly translates into kuku ibu jari. Since this is a smartphone user manual, this translation is not relevant. The translator then adapted a new word that is related to visual object in smartphone which is recognized as thumbnail. A thumbnail is small picture that appears in gallery of the device. Therefore, the translator decided to translate it as gambar kecil "small picture" which have the same meaning from source language.

Modulation
Modulation is a translation technique that change the point of view, focus, or cognitive category in the target language. The purpose of modulation used in this book was to highlight the word and change its point of view to make the sentence sound natural. For example: SL: To avoid disconnecting from the network. (p. 13) TL: Agar sambungan tidak terputus dari jaringan. (p. 13) The word avoid has a negative connotative meaning, while agar is a word with positive meaning in Indonesia, and it is simpler. This changes the point of view from negative into positive.

Omission
Omission is a translation technique that omits certain word that is not needed in target language. The translator used this technique because the meaning in the source language was already conveyed in target language. Some long sentences can distract reader with more explanation, which can be omitted by translator in target language. For example: SL: Push the memory card into the slot until it locks in place. (p. 16) TL: Dorong kartu memori ke dalam slot sampai terkunci. (p. 16) In the example above, the prepositional phrase in place has been left out from the translated version in Indonesian. In this language, the equivalence for the word lock, i.e. menggunci, bears the meaning of in place, so including this phrase into the translated version makes it redundant. Therefore, the translation omitted this phrase to make the sentence more natural without tempering with the message in the source text.

Discussion
The results of this study have showed that eight translation techniques have been used in translating the Samsung GT-19500 user manual book from English into Indonesian. From these techniques, borrowing is the most used translation technique in this user manual. The use of this translation technique is expected for this text genre because there are many new terms which have been invented following technological invention. According to Aryati (2014, p. 228), information technology is used by many people in the world, and although some words have equivalence in Indonesian, there are many terms that cannot be translated. This situation has made the use of original terms in the target text. In addition, the use of borrowing technique for some words which have equivalences in Indonesian is to avoid misinterpretation because the borrowed terms are more familiar to smartphone users. In this case, borrowing technique is preferable to keep the word and expression intact into target language from the source language. This technique has also been found by Farid (2019) when analyzing the word level translation of a smartphone manual book. Farid (2019, p. 27) also found that the translator borrowed the words "konten, fitur, format, ikon, direktori, kontak, ketidakkompatibelan, kontrol, and notifikasi" because the words are more familiar among smartphone users.
The second most used translation technique found in this study is literal translation, and it can be seen from the use of clause and verb phrase levels. The target language keeps naturalness after being translated using this technique because Indonesian and English syntax have some similarities in clause structure levels, especially in simple sentence. Literal translation is the starting point of translation because each word is translated directly (Fang & Lu, 2012, p. 743). It cannot be avoided because it is the default translation technique (Arffman, 2012), and it serves as the basis of all other translation techniques (Mustafa & Kholid, 2019, p. 141).
Another translation technique which was used in this research was calque. Larizgoitia (2010, pp. 32-33) said that calque is used for modernizing the vocabulary, term, phrase through imitation of target language and most effective to introduce technical terminology. This translation technique was usually used when the terms are phrases, where no equivalence is available. With the establishment of many new features of smartphone, new terms are being invented such as black mode, airplane more, silent mode, personal hotspot, etc. Calque is the best technique to translate these terms because no other equivalences are available in the target language, although these translated versions need specific operational definition. Stepanova (2017) also found that this technique was commonly used in translating legal documents.
Finally, another interesting result is that omission was very rarely-used in translating this type of document. Omission is frequently found in translated versions into Indonesian to achieve naturalness. In translating magazine articles, omission is used avoid redundant information because it has been implied in previous sentences or phrases (Mustafa & Kholid, 2019). However, this translation technique was infrequently used in translating the smartphone user manual. It can be understood because the user manual is different to a magazine article as the information provided in the user manual should be as accurately as possible without including irrelevant information. Therefore, all information in the source text is required in order to express all the instructions to use the smartphone. This nature of smartphone user manual makes the translator avoid using omission technique when translating it into Indonesian.

Conclusion
The objective of this study was to analyze the translation techniques used in Samsung GT-19500 smartphone user manual. The data were collected from the user manual by comparing the English version and Indonesian counterpart. The result of the study shows that there are eight translation technique used in translating the user manual. The most commonly used techniques include borrowing (41%), literal translation (25%), and calque (12%). Other techniques were found less than 10%, including transposition (7%), equivalence (6%), adaptation (5%), modulation (3%), and omission (2%). This result suggests that the translation techniques used in translating a smartphone user manual are unique because the book consists of many terms without Indonesian equivalence either in word or phrase level, and the book consists of brief, compacted, and accurate information without any redundancy or ambiguity.
The study has revealed the most commonly used translation techniques in translating Samsung GT-19500 user manual. The result of this study is expected to be transferable to other smartphone user manuals, or to technological devise user manuals. However, the generalizability of this research results is subject to some limitations. First, this research was a qualitative study, which is by nature not intended for generalization. Second, only one user manual was analyzed in this study. Smartphones come with many different features; therefore, translation techniques might be different for other smartphone, especially those with different features to Samsung GT-19500 smartphone. Finally, the analysis in this study was based on limited number of sentences, producing only 137 tokens of translation techniques, because the user manual consists of only 147 pages.